Maunalua Bay

Maunalua is a ʻili in the ahupua‘a of Waimānalo in the moku of Koʻolaupoko

Maunalua is an area with a rich history, and one that was significant to the Hawaiian royalty. The name Maunalua means “two mountains,” in reference to the fishpond as well as the two peaks Kohelepelepe (Koko Crater, elevation 1,207 feet, or 368 meters) and Koko Head (elevation 645 feet, or 197 meters).

Historically, Maunalua was originally an ʻili kupono (small land division) in the ahupua‘a (traditional land resource division) of Waimānalo in the moku (traditional political district) of Koʻolaupoko. Today, some recognize Maunalua as an ahupua‘a of Waimanalo, but was made part of the Honolulu District in 1859 (King 1935:216). Many know the area as Hawaii Kai. (Ko‘olaupoko Hawaiian Civic Club n.d.)

Maunalua Bay (also historically known as Wai‘alae Bay; see map on the front cover from early 1900s) extends from the ‘ili of Maunalua in the Waimanalo ahupua‘a, moku of Ko‘olaupoko, to the Wai‘alae ahupua‘a in the moku of Kona (figure 1). This area encompasses seven miles of shoreline and 28 square miles of land, extending to the summit of the Ko‘olau mountains.

Following Western contact, significant physical, ecological and cultural ruin was inflicted on the `āina (land), wai (fresh water), muliwai (estuaries or enclosed waters) and kai (sea) of Maunalua and Maunalua Bay. Damage was largely a result of urban expansion and associated development, which accelerated in the years following Hawai‘i statehood in 1959. Careless deviation from the Hawaii State Planning Act, codified in Chapter 226 of the Hawai‘i Revised Statutes, resulted in the decay and loss of Maunalua’s historical legacy—the beauty, rural nature and lifestyle that are the essential characteristics of old Hawai`i.

By remembering and readopting traditional Native Hawaiian stewardship practices, it is possible to rectify, in part, the failure by the state and its residents to fulfill their kuleana (responsibility) to Maunalua. Doing so could ensure the sustainability of Maunalua’s remaining resources for the benefit of its residents and visitors alike.

Maunalua before Western Contact

Maunalua Early History to Modern Times

In 1786, Captain Portlock, a British captain who commanded the ships King George and Queen Charlotte, dubbed Maunalua Bay as “King George Bay,” but that name did not last long (Maunalua.net n.d.(a)).

During the Great Mahele (division) in 1848 by Kamehameha III, Maunalua was awarded to Victoria Kamamalu, who was the sister of Kamehameha IV and V and the granddaughter of Kamehameha the Great. The Mahele allowed fishponds to become private property and a part of the adjoining land (Young 2019). The Mahele and the privatization of specific resources such as the fishponds spelled the beginning of the end for areas such as Maunalua. In 1856, Maunalua was leased to William Webster for cattle ranching and then transferred to Bernice Pauahi Bishop in 1866 after Kamamalu’s death.

Throughout the 1900s and especially after WWII, the loko i‘a, muliwai and surrounding lands of Maunalua Bay were dredged and filled to accommodate the demand for cattle ranching and dairy farming and then as real estate for housing development (Atkinson 2007). Urban development spiked after January 1, 1960, when the majority of farming and ranching leases expired. Many farms sat idle in 1959 in preparation for their upcoming expiring leases (Atkinson 2007).

These changes devastated fishponds, compromised native marine habitats and drastically reduced Maunalua Bay’s capacity to provide fish for the island. By 1960, only 14 of the 74 fishponds on O‘ahu were still in use. As time progressed, the bay experienced many more developmental changes that led to its current disintegrated state.

Maunalua Bay Fisheries and Fishponds

In 1778, O‘ahu had the greatest number of fishponds of all the Hawaiian Islands (Atkinson 2007). A prominent contributor to fishponds on O‘ahu was Maunalua Bay. At one point in time, the fish caught in the bay accounted for over 80 percent of all money earned from fish caught throughout the islands (Takemoto et al. 1975). However, fishing activity has since significantly diminished, with fishery landings declining by 90 percent in 1966. This decline has been attributed in large part to changes to the ecosystem and habitat loss resulting from urban development, e.g., dredging and filling fishponds for real estate (Mālama Maunalua 2006). Much of Maunalua Bay’s original land and coastline have been forever lost to development and cannot be fully restored back to what they were in the 1700s.

Wai‘alae (mudhen water) is an area split into two smaller divisions known as Wai‘alae Nui (large) and Wai‘alae Iki (small). This area is also known as Kahala, the Hawaiian name for amberjack, one of the fish that were caught in abundance there (Cassady 2022). In 1887, Daniel Paul Rice Isenberg invested in a 3,000-acre ranch in the Wai‘alae area. Eleven years later in 1898, Theodore Lansing began construction of a residential district. Wai‘alae soon became a thoroughfare for areas such as Kapahulu, Kaimuki and Koko Head as well as a place for business as infrastructure and transportation capabilities increased in the early 1900s. The Royal Hawaiian Hotel and Waialae Golf Course began construction in 1927, and, on July 1 of the same year, the Isenberg ranch was converted into a clubhouse for the golf course. More houses were built along the beachfront in the 1930s, and, following a petition passed on December 20, 1938, more than 50 pig farms were removed due to concerns about rat and mice infestations (Young 2016).

Wailupe, or “kite water,” was one of the only places kites were permitted to be flown. The area is now commonly known as ‘Āina Haina. In the 1880s, the area was used for ranching and dairy farming under John Perry. It was then transitioned to dairy under the Hind family in 1924. The Hinds bought 2,090 acres of land, thus the area eventually being renamed to ‘Āina Haina (Hind’s land) (Young 2013). In an interview with Carolyn Fujishima, Chris Cramer of the Maunalua Fishpond Heritage Center, shared a story about how her grandfather, Sankichi Nakano, learned how to take care of the Wailupe fishpond from the Hawaiian community. Nakano’s life revolved around caring for the pond sleeping according to moon phases and tides. Fujishima explained how her grandfather was devastated when the military took control of Wailupe fishpond during World War II. The end of World War II and the return of veterans increased the demand for housing (Vukelich 2019). Fishponds in the area were filled in 1945 and then again in 1947, creating today’s Wailupe Peninsula and Wailupe Circle (Franklin 2007; Young 2013). After the closure of the Hind-Clark Dairy operation in 1948, the Wailupe area transitioned to real estate in 1949. The residential subdivision was finally finished in 1957 under Robert Hind’s son, Robson (Atkinson 2007; Honda 2020).

Niu (meaning “coconut”) and Kuli‘ou‘ou (meaning “sounding knee drum”) were formerly the location of Kamehameha the Great’s summer home. These lands were claimed by Alexander Adams in 1848 after the Great Mahele. The area contained two large gulches, substantial springs or subsurface flow, and agricultural terraces.

Aside from fishing and fishpond cultivation, Niu was also used for cattle operations in the late 1800s. Then in the 1940s, Niu and Kupapa fishponds were filled to create Niuiki Circle, also known as Niu Peninsula (Maunalua.net n.d.(a)). In the 1950s, post-World War II demand for real estate further increased. The population and urbanization of the area expanded with the purchase of second homes by investors (Atkinson 2007). This process of growth eventually led to the east end of Niu beach being lost to erosion between 1971 and 1975 (Climate Resilience Collaborative 2021).

Among the other fishponds in Niu Valley is Kalauha‘iha‘i. Formerly Kamehameha the Great’s kalo (taro) patch, Kalauha‘iha‘i was a thriving fishpond due to its freshwater artesian spring, where fish such as awa (milk-fish), āholehole (flagtail) and mullet were cultivated. It is also known as Lucas Pond (figure 3), named after the family that inherited it from King Kamehameha. The pond was used until the 1990s, when its freshwater supply was disrupted by the Kalaniana‘ole Highway widening project. This fishpond is now under the care of the Maunalua Fishpond Heritage Center.

Kānewai Fishpond located at the western boundary of Kuli‘ou‘ou valley is fed by one of the few remaining freshwater springs on O‘ahu. It feeds the muliwai or estuary for a wide variety of native fish and endangered waterbirds including the few remaining endangered ae‘o (Hawaiian stilt). Noted Ewa Limu expert, Henry Chang Wo, explained Kānewai Spring as “where the mountain gives birth to the ocean.” This pond is also under the stewardship of the Maunalua Fishpond Heritage Center.

Paiko Lagoon is named after Manuel Paiko, who raised cattle commercially on half of the Kuli‘ou‘ou ahupua‘a in the 1870s. The area naturally formed the Paiko peninsula and lagoon from a naturally expanding sandbar around the 20th century. It was eventually stabilized by housing and vegetation in the 1930s. This lagoon is located at the west entrance of a marina and is an area that miraculously avoided the housing development trend in the 1960s. In 1959, the City and County of Honolulu planned for 25 acres of the lagoon to be dedicated to housing development and creation of a harbor and marina. However, community efforts to preserve the lagoon as a coastal bird habitat prevented the development. The lagoon was dredged in 1972 to remove intertidal flats and obnoxious odors. It was converted into a marine embayment and bird sanctuary in 1974 for endangered native Hawaiian birds, such as the stilt (Atkinson 2007).

Kuapā Pond, also known as Keahapua-o-Maunalua, is located in the ‘ili of Maunalua, Waimanalo ahupua‘a. It historically encompassed 523 acres and was the largest fishpond on O‘ahu (figure 4). Changes began taking place in 1888 when Charles Bishop leased the area for 10 years to S.M. Damon and G.J Campbell for cattle ranching. From 1900 to 1926, Damon established the Maunalua Ranch Company, which worked with mules, pigs, horses and cattle. Additionally in the 1920s, the area was leased to the Honolulu Honey Company to operate eight apiaries. From the 1930s to the 1950s, 15 percent of the area around the pond produced 60 percent of the flowers, pigs and lettuce on O‘ahu. Consequently, this boom in productivity caused the region to become an odiferous area (Atkinson 2007). Kuapā became increasingly silted over the years resulting in 5 to 6 feet of mud. Still, by 1960, Kuapā was one of the last 7 out of 74 fishponds on O‘ahu to be stocked and tended.

California entrepreneur Henry J. Kaiser began operations to transform this pond into a marina in 1959. The pond and Maunalua Bay were dredged to create the 260-acre marine embayment now known as the Hawaii Kai Marina (Atkinson 2007). The former pond is reinforced with retaining walls and now has two rim islands created from dredged material deposits (Atkinson 2007; Young 2012). In April 1961, Kaiser leased 521 acres from the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Estate to build residential homes around the marina and on the two rim islands (Atkinson 2007)

Ecological Impacts

Natural effluents from farms, dairies and ranches once added to the vibrancy of the Maunalua Bay. Old-timers recalled the decaying biomass of thick black mud that accumulated along the shoreline creating habitat for crabs and shrimp and most likely providing nutrients for the flora and fauna. However, most of the ecological impacts of development have had been overwhelmingly negative for Maunalua’s marine inhabitants. Today, pollution, non-native species, erosion and the loss of native marine life plagues the bay. 

Dredging and filling of fishponds, building over permeable lands on hillsides and valleys, channelizing and hardening stream beds, and developing road and highway drainage systems have caused runoff water and sediments to enter into and pollute the bay. Increased sedimentation in particular has been a major cause of the bay’s declining health. Sedimentation nine times higher than its historic natural rate has smothered coral and other marine life, introduced bacterial disease and affected the reproduction of some species (Atkinson 2007).

A 2005 study also revealed changes in water quality and turbidity due to sediment and pollutants from activities such as dredging and filling. In 1961, Kuapā pond was filled, reducing it to less than 300 acres from its original 523. Furthermore, the opening of a new main channel into the pond in 1959 caused an increase in salinity levels, and the pond was no longer able to support the estuarine environments due to the resultant hypersaline, hyper-turbid conditions (Atkinson 2007).

Construction activities, such as road widening, has also affected salinity levels, severing fresh groundwater channels and contributing to the loss of freshwater springs along Maunalua’s shores. Maunalua Bay, once a paramount resource for food and fresh water, has become incapacitated.                                                                                   

The presence of non-native invasive species in the ecosystem, introduced as a result of construction projects, was revealed in a 2002 study of Hawaii Kai Marina, formerly Kuapā Pond. Non-native algae (Acanthophora spicifera, Gracilaria salicornia, Hypnea musciformis and Avrainvillea amadelpha) now compete for space with native algae species. A. amadelpha is the most prominent algae and is believed to have been introduced to the bay in 1981. This algae creates layers of mud through the entrapment of sediment over time. The non-native snowflake coral (Carijoa riisei) is also present in the bay, predominantly on bridge pilings and hard surfaces, and was first identified in Pearl Harbor in 1972 from a ship’s hull.

An online article “When the Limu Kala Disappears” by the Maunalua Fishpond Heritage Center highlights the loss of limu kala (Sargassum aquifolium, formerly S. echinocarpum), a culturally important native species that once dominated and carpeted much of the outer reef of Maunalua Bay (figure 6).

“This reef along Maunalua Bay was thickly carpeted with golden limu kala. Then five years ago something caused the entire field of limu kala to disappear. Limu kala is Hawaiian medicine from the sea. It is difficult to put in words the significant cultural value of this limu (edible seaweed).

“Along with forgiveness and prayer, limu kala is an essential part of ho‘oponopono [reconciliation and forgiveness] and purification ceremonies. Kala means to loosen or release. There is no staying dry when gathering this limu, as it grows in the breaking surf. Those who are sick wear a lei of limu kala when swimming seaward to cleanse disease and burdens. A natural pain reliever, it is applied to bruisies.

Gone today are the schools of mullet and akule that once blackened the waters of Maunalua Bay during their annual ‘anae holo (spawning migration). Joseph “Joe” Lukela (1879 to 1966), konohiki (a traditional concept of ocean resource rights and management) of the ocean area from Kuli‘ouʻou to Makapuʻu for over 50 years, recalled the spectacular return of the mullet annually into Kuapā Pond when he opened the mākāhā (sluice gate) to allow them to enter to replenish there (Maunalua.net n.d.(b)). Besides the loss of the ponds and estuary habitat especially at Maunalua, the “accidental” introduction of the non-indigenous kanda (Marquesan mullet, Valamugil engeli) also contributed significantly to the demise of the ‘anae holo through habitat displacement. The Marquesan mullet was Introduced to O‘ahu in 1955 and has subsequently established itself throughout the Hawaiian Islands (Hawaii 24/7 2015).

Gone too are the mullet fishing chairs that dotted the south and eastern shores of O‘ahu (figures 7 and 8). Coastal fishermen at Ala Moana, Ala Wai and Wailupe awaited the annual run as it also attracted predator fish like the ulua (giant trevally). The loss of the annual ‘anae holo of the native striped mullet may be the most notable ecological and cultural change experienced at Maunalua.

Our Failed Kuleana and Restoration Efforts